Article Summaries
Article A
Cao, Nanlai. “Boss Christians: The Business of Religion in the ‘Wenzhou Model’ of Christian Revival.” The China Journal, No. 59 (January 2008), pp. 63–87.
Introduction
The reformist theory of Protestant ethics has profoundly influenced a rural community in China known as Wenzhou, transforming it into the leading capitalist city in the subregion over the past decade. The city is now home to approximately 1,200 churches, with a combined membership estimated between 700 and 800 million. Notably, nearly every family within the community owns a private business, a reality that has earned them the widely used nickname “Boss Christians.”
Despite the remarkable economic transformation brought about by these Protestant ethics, the Wenzhou Christians have been stereotyped as uncultured and illiterate by outsiders. In response, they interpret their prosperity as a divine blessing, a fruit of renewed faith in the prevailing revival movement and have come to regard their city as the “New Jerusalem.” Disturbed by the perception of being materially wealthy yet culturally deficient, the Boss Christians adopted a dual identity strategy, skillfully integrating their business pursuits with their Christian faith so that their political, cultural, and economic lives reinforce their religious understanding.
Church Leadership, Funding, and Conflict
One of the most distinctive features of the Wenzhou Christian community is its financial culture. Boss Christians provide substantial support to church buildings, evangelical projects, and various church initiatives, a pattern the author personally observed during 19 months of ethnographic field research in the subregion. Equally noteworthy is that, unlike conventional church structures, administrative leadership in Wenzhou churches is dominated by these businessmen rather than ordained pastors.
Since the 1990s, the creation of a free market zone has intensified competition in church architecture and expansion. A prevailing philosophy emerged that an impressive church building serves both as a tool for effective evangelism and a means of gaining political visibility. This ideology gave rise to magnificent church structures in northern China and parts of Europe, including Italy, Spain, and France, where Wenzhou preachers are invited to minister in their local dialect.
The vision for grand ecclesiastical architecture reached its apex in a proposed 10,000-capacity dream building in Shanghai, championed by a wealthy real estate developer named Luo. This ambition has since become a broader cultural phenomenon, with fundraising and money lending widely used to erect or acquire large, prestigious worship spaces within Wenzhou communities around the world.
However, the disproportionate financial power of wealthy donors has introduced significant tension within church structures. Disputes over ownership and authority have created leadership crises, while the private sponsorship of lay pastors by business figures has generated further internal friction, a subject most church members were reluctant to address during the author’s interviews.
Church Growth, Schism, and Expansion
As congregations grew, leadership responded by dividing churches into smaller fellowship and prayer groups, headed by competent and experienced community leaders. While this approach was intended to facilitate church growth and improve governance, it introduced new problems. Some appointed leaders claimed ownership of their groups; others departed to establish independent congregations. Competition for members led to sheep-stealing and doctrinal disputes, resulting in schisms from mother churches.
The survival of these breakaway congregations is often precarious due to limited financial support. In response, Boss Christians have formed para-groups that effectively restrict funding from reaching newly independent churches. Paradoxically, however, these splits have also contributed to the broader expansion of church planting across the region.
Conclusion
The Wenzhou model of Christian growth rooted in the integration of entrepreneurial identity and evangelical faith has been central to the social and economic transformation of the Wenzhou community. Leveraging their diaspora networks, particularly in Europe and the United States, these Boss Christians have accelerated China’s industrialization and modernity in ways that extend far beyond the religious sphere. The result is a unique model in which commercial enterprise and Christian witness are mutually reinforcing forces in community development.
References
Cao, Nanlai. “Boss Christians: The Business of Religion in the ‘Wenzhou Model’ of Christian Revival.” The China Journal, No. 59 (January 2008), pp. 63–87. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20066380. Accessed 2 September 2021.
Google Scholar. Nanlai Cao — Scholar Profile. Available at: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=lt7RvtgAAAAJ&hl=en. Accessed 23 October 2021.
Author’s Background
Nanlai Cao is an Associate Professor of Religious Studies at Renmin University of China.
Article B
Budiselić, Ervin. “The Old Testament Concept of Revival within the New Testament.” Kairos — Evangelical Journal of Theology, Vol. VIII, No. 1 (2014), pp. 45–74.
Introduction
The term “revival” is widely used within Christian circles, often attached to a broad range of spiritual activities and experiences. Yet, despite its popularity, many contemporary Christians demonstrate a limited understanding of its precise meaning. The desire for divine visitation is frequently and incorrectly labeled as “revival” when it is more accurately described as “revivalism,” while the manifestation of God’s Kingdom is similarly misidentified under the same term.
This article argues that the concept of revival as defined and expressed in the Old Testament has not been adequately applied in modern Christian usage, and it seeks to address this gap by offering a more precise understanding. To accomplish this, the article examines three key areas: (a) the distinction between revival and awakening; (b) a specific and comparative analysis of revival in both the Old and New Testaments; and (c) conclusions for modern Christian application.
The Distinction Between Revival and Awakening
A foundational problem in contemporary Christian discourse is the failure to distinguish between the terms “revival” and “awakening.” This article establishes that “revival” refers to the restoration of a Christian or the church to her first love, specifically when spiritual fervor has grown cold. Awakening, by contrast, refers to the spiritual stirring of non-Christians who have never experienced life in Christ. The conflation of these two terms common even among Croatian Christians has distorted the theological worldview of many believers and undermined meaningful spiritual discourse.
Comparative Analysis: Old Testament and New Testament Concepts of Revival
The word “revival” does not appear directly in the New Testament, and even in the Old Testament, it surfaces explicitly only in the King James Version. The article examines the Hebrew and Greek terms that carry the concept across both Testaments.
In the Old Testament, the principal term is “Chayah,” meaning “to live” or “to preserve.” Additional related terms include Michayah (reviving or revivification), Chadash (to renew or restore), and Chalaph (to pass over, change, or revive).
In the New Testament, while no direct equivalent exists and the apostles never explicitly prayed for revival, several terms indirectly convey related concepts. These include Anakainoo (renewal of the Holy Spirit), Anapsychsis (refreshment), Anakainosis (to make new again), Eknepho (to become sober), Egerio (to wake up), and Anakanizo (renewal or doing something new).
The article identifies three key challenges in applying New Testament terms through an Old Testament lens:
First, the Old Testament concept of revival operates within a retributive covenant framework, where blessing is tied to obedience and performance. The New Testament, however, presents a covenant grounded in relationship with Christ and His salvific work, where blessing is understood not as material prosperity but as redemption.
Second, a problem of revival inflation exists. If revival and awakening are properly distinguished, then Acts Chapter 1 represents revival (the renewal of existing believers), while Acts Chapter 2 represents awakening (the conversion of unbelievers). Revival in the New Testament is thus directed toward the new Israel, the church, which subsequently draws non-Christians to Christ.
Third, Old Testament believers prayed for revival and experienced it through the forgiveness of sins, which in turn opened the door to material blessing. New Testament Christians, however, inherit revival as a fulfilled promise and are therefore called not merely to pray for revival but to pray for laborers. Christ has already bestowed forgiveness and imputed His righteousness, equipping believers to respond fully to the Great Commission.
Conclusion
Scholars widely acknowledge that, at a semantic level, the concept of revival as expressed in the New Testament has not been adequately developed, creating a meaningful gap between the two Testaments’ treatments of the subject. The concept of revival rose to prominence around 1702, originating from a specific historical and geographical context. However, rather than being preoccupied with historical dimensions, modern Christians are better served by understanding how revival can be meaningfully applied today.
To do so, one must recognize that the Old and New Testament concepts of revival express distinct spiritual realities. Drawing on the Old Testament framework, the author proposes that modern Christianity should embrace revival as the revitalization of believers by the Holy Spirit empowering them to reach the unsaved. Since the Kingdom of God is already present and believers are initiated into it as one family, revival becomes especially necessary when the church experiences disunity or fails to fulfill the Great Commission.
References
Budiselić, Ervin. “The Old Testament Concept of Revival within the New Testament.” Kairos — Evangelical Journal of Theology, Vol. VIII, No. 1 (2014), pp. 45–74.
ResearchGate. Ervin Budiselić — Researcher Profile. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ervin-Budiselic. Accessed 20 October 2021.
Author’s Background
Ervin Budiselić is a faculty member at the Biblical Institute of Zagreb, Croatia. He holds a Ph.D. in Biblical Theology, with research interests spanning Hermeneutics, biblical theology, atheism and humanism, and the comparative study of religion.
